The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 1 — Reading Notes

Provinces was entrusted to the author, and its preparation, undertaken in addition to ordinary official duties, has been spread over a number of years. The prescribed plan was that a separate account should be written of each of the principal tribes and castes, according to the method adopted in Sir Herbert Risley's _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_. This was considered to be desirable as the book is intended primarily as a work of reference for the officers of Government, who may desire to know something of the customs of the people among whom their work lies. It has the disadvantage of involving a large amount of repetition of the same or very similar statements about different castes, and the result is likely therefore to be somewhat distasteful to the ordinary reader. On the other hand, there is no doubt that this method of treatment, if conscientiously followed out, will produce more exhaustive results than a general account. Similar works for some other Provinces have already appeared, as Mr. W. Crooke's _Castes and Tribes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, Mr. Edgar Thurston's _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, and Mr. Ananta Krishna Iyer's volumes on Cochin, while a Glossary for the Punjab by Mr. H.A. Rose has been partly published. The articles on Religions and Sects were not in the original scheme of the work, but have been subsequently added as being necessary to render it a complete ethnological account of the population. In several instances the adherents of the religion or sect are found only in very small numbers in the Province, and the articles have been compiled from standard works.

In the preparation of the book much use has necessarily been made of the standard ethnological accounts of other parts of India, especially Colonel Tod's _Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan_, Mr. J.D. Forbes' _Rasmala or Annals of Gujarat_, Colonel Dalton's _Ethnology of Bengal_, Dr. Buchanan's _Eastern India_, Sir Denzil Ibbetson's _Punjab Census Report_ for 1881, Sir John Malcolm's _Memoir of Central India_, Sir Edward Gait's _Bengal and India Census Reports_ and article on Caste in Dr. Hastings' _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, Colonel (Sir William) Sleeman's _Report on the Badhaks_ and _Ramaseeana or Vocabulary of the Thugs,_ Mr. Kennedy's _Criminal Classes of the Bombay Presidency_, Major Gunthorpe's _Criminal Tribes of Bombay, Berar and the Central Provinces_, the books of Mr. Crooke and Sir H. Risley already mentioned, and the mass of valuable ethnological material contained in the _Bombay Gazetteer _ (Sir J. Campbell), especially the admirable volumes on _Hindus of Gujarat_ by Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam, and _Parsis and Muhammadans of Gujarat_ by Khan Bahadur Fazlullah Lutfullah Faridi, and Mr. Kharsedji Nasarvanji Seervai, J.P., and Khan Bahadur Bamanji Behramji Patel. Other Indian ethnological works from which I have made quotations are Dr. Wilson's _Indian Caste_ (_Times_ Press and Messrs. Blackwood). Bishop Westcott's _Kabir and the Kabirpanth_ (Baptist Mission Press, Cawnpore), Mr. Rajendra Lal Mitra's _Indo-Aryans_ (Newman & Co., Calcutta), _The Jainas_ by Dr. J.G. Bühler and Mr. J. Burgess, Dr. J.N. Bhattacharya's _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta), Professor Oman's _Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, Cults, Customs and Superstitions of India_, and _Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India_ (T. Fisher Unwin), Mr. V.A. Smith's _Early History of India_ (Clarendon Press), the Rev. T.P. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_ (W.H. Allen & Co., and Heffer & Sons, Cambridge), Mr. L.D. Barnett's _Antiquities of India_, M. André Chevrillon's _Romantic India_, Mr. V. Ball's _Jungle Life in India_, Mr. W. Crooke's _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, and _Things Indian_, Captain Forsyth's _Highlands of Central India_ (Messrs. Chapman & Hall), Messrs. Yule and Burnell's _Hobson-Jobson_ (Mr. Crooke's edition), Professor Hopkins' _Religions of India_, the Rev. E.M. Gordon's _Indian Folk-Tales_ (Elliot & Stock), Messrs. Sewell and Dikshit's _Indian Calendar_, Mr. Brennand's _Hindu Astronomy_, and the late Rev. Father P. Dehon's monograph on the Oraons in the _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_.

Ethnological works on the people of the Central Provinces are not numerous; among those from which assistance has been obtained are Sir C. Grant's _Central Provinces Gazetteer_ of 1871, Rev. Stephen Hislop's _Notes on the Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces_, Colonel Bloomfield's _Notes on the Baigas_, Sir Charles Elliott's _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_, Sir Reginald Craddock's _Nagpur Settlement Report_, Colonel Ward's _Mandla Settlement Report_, Colonel Lucie Smith's _Chanda Settlement Report_, Mr. G.W. Gayer's _Lectures on Criminal Tribes_, Mr. C.W. Montgomerie's _Chhindwara Settlement Report_, Mr. C.E. Low's _Balaghat District Gazetteer_, Mr. E.J. Kitts' _Berar Census Report_ of 1881, and the _Central Provinces Census Reports_ of Mr. T. Drysdale, Sir Benjamin Robertson and Mr. J.T. Marten.

The author is indebted to Sir J.G. Frazer for his kind permission to make quotations from _The Golden Bough_ and _Totemism and Exogamy_ (Macmillan), in which the best examples of almost all branches of primitive custom are to be found; to Dr. Edward Westermarck for similar permission in respect of _The History of Human Marriage_, and _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_ (Macmillan); to Messrs. A. & C. Black in respect of the late Professor Robertson Smith's _Religion of the Semites_; to Messrs. Heinemann for those from M. Salomon Reinach's _Orpheus_; and to Messrs. Hachette et Cie and Messrs. Parker of Oxford for those from _La Cité Antique_ of M. Fustel de Coulanges. Much assistance has also been obtained from Sir E. B. Tylor's _Early History of Mankind_ and _Primitive Culture_, Lord Avebury's _The Origin of Civilisation_, Mr. E. Sidney Hartland's _Primitive Paternity_, and M. Salomon Reinach's _Cultes, Mythes et Religions_. The labours of these eminent authors have made it possible for the student to obtain a practical knowledge of the ethnology of the world by the perusal of a small number of books; and if any of the ideas put forward in these volumes should ultimately be so fortunate as to obtain acceptance, it is to the above books that I am principally indebted for having been able to formulate them. Other works from which help has been obtained are M. Emile Senart's _Les Castes dans I'Inde_, Professor W. E. Hearn's _The Aryan Household_, and Dr. A.H. Keane's _The World's Peoples_. Sir George Grierson's great work, _The Linguistic Survey of India_, has now given an accurate classification of the non-Aryan tribes according to their languages and has further thrown a considerable degree of light on the vexed question of their origin. I have received from Mr. W. Crooke of the Indian Civil Service (retired) much kind help and advice during the final stages of the preparation of this work. As will be seen from the articles, resort has constantly been made to his _Tribes and Castes_ for filling up gaps in the local information.

Rai Bahadur Hira Lal was my assistant for several years in the taking of the census of 1901 and the preparation of the Central Provinces District Gazetteers; he has always given the most loyal and unselfish aid, has personally collected a large part of the original information contained in the book, and spent much time in collating the results. The association of his name in the authorship is no more than his due, though except where this has been specifically mentioned, he is not responsible for the theories and deductions from the facts obtained. Mr. Pyare Lal Misra, barrister, Chhindwara, was my ethnographic clerk for some years, and he and Munshi Kanhya Lal, late of the Educational Department, and Mr. Aduram Chandhri, Tahsildar, gave much assistance in the inquiries on different castes. Among others who have helped in the work, Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Diwan of the Patna and Bastar States, should be mentioned first, and Babu Kali Prasanna Mukerji, pleader, Saugor, Mr. Gopal Datta Joshi, District Judge, Saugor, Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy-Inspector of Schools, and Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar, may be selected from the large number whose names are given in the footnotes to the articles. Among European officers whose assistance should be acknowledged are Messrs. C.E. Low, C.W. Montgomerie, A.B. Napier, A.E. Nelson, A.K. Smith, R.H. Crosthwaite and H.F. Hallifax, of the Civil Service; Lt.-Col. W.D. Sutherland, I.M.S., Surgeon-Major Mitchell of Bastar, and Mr. D. Chisholm.

Some photographs have been kindly contributed by Mrs. Ashbrooke Crump, Mrs. Mangabai Kelkar, Mr. G.L. Corbett, C.S., Mr. R.L. Johnston, A.D.S.P., Mr. J.H. Searle, C.S., Mr. Strachey, Mr. H.E. Bartlett, Professor L. Scherman of Munich, and the Diwan of Raigarh State. Bishop Westcott kindly gave the photograph of Kabir, which appears in his own book.

Finally I have to express my gratitude to the Chief Commissioner, Sir Benjamin Robertson, for the liberal allotment made by the Administration for the publication of the work; and to the publishers, Messrs. Macmillan & Co., and the printers, Messrs. R. & R. Clark, for their courtesy and assistance during its progress through the press.

Introductory Essay on Caste Articles on the Religions and Sects of the People of the Central Provinces Glossary of Minor Castes and Other Articles, Synonyms, Subcastes, Titles and Names of Exogamous Septs or Clans Subject Index

Part II--Volumes II, III and IV

Descriptive Articles on the Principal Castes and Tribes of the Central Provinces

DETAILED LIST OF CONTENTS

Articles on Religions and Sects

The articles which are considered to be of most general interest are shown in capitals

ARYA SAMAJ RELIGION 201 BRAHMO SAMAJ RELIGION 208 Dadupanthi Sect 215 Dhami Sect 216 JAIN RELIGION 219 KABIRPANTHI SECT 232 Lingayat Sect 244 MUHAMMADAN RELIGION 247 Nanakpanthi Sect 277 Parmarthi Sect 281 PARSI OR ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION 284 Saiva Sect 302 Sakta Sect 304 SATNAMI SECT 307 Sikh Religion 317 Smarta Sect 325 Swami-Narayan Sect 326 VAISHNAVA SECT 330 Vam-Margi Sect 333 Wahhabi Sect 335

Articles on Minor Castes and Miscellaneous Notices Included in the Glossary

Agamudayan. Alia. Arab. Are. Arora. Bahelia. Bahrupia. Banka. Bargah. Bayar. Belwar. Besta. Bhand. Bhatia. Bhima. Bhona. Bind. Birhor. Bopchi. Chenchuwar. Chero. Dangur. Daraihan. Dhalgar. Dhera. Dohor. Gandli. Girgira. Goyanda. Hatwa. Jasondhi. Jokhara. Kamad. Kamathi. Kamma. Kammala. Kandra. Kast. Khadal. Khadra. Kotwar. Kumrawat. Kundera. Londhari. Madgi. Malyar. Mangan. Marori. Medara. Mirdha. Mukeri. Mutrasi. Nagarchi. Otari. Pabia. Pahalwan. Panchal. Pandra. Parka. Periki. Redka. Rohilla. Sais. Santal. Satani. Segidi. Siddi. Sidhira. Sikligar. Solaha. Sonkar. Tanti. Tirmale. Tiyar. Vellala. Wakkaliga.

Articles on Castes and Tribes of the Central Provinces in Alphabetical Order

Agaria (_Iron-worker_) 3 Agharia (_Cultivator_) 8 Aghori (_Religious mendicant_) 13 Ahir (_Herdsman and milkman_) 18 Andh (_Tribe, now cultivators_) 38 Arakh (_Hunter_) 40 Atari (_Scent-seller_) 42 Audhelia (_Labourer_) 45 Badhak (_Robber_) 49 Bahna (_Cotton-cleaner_) 69 Baiga (_Forest tribe_) 77 Bairagi (_Religious mendicants_) 93 Balahi (_Labourer and village watchman_) 105 Balija (_Cultivator_) 108 Bania (_Merchant and moneylender_) 111

Agarwala. Agrahari. Ajudhiabasi. Asathi. Charnagri. Dhusar. Dosar. Gahoi. Golapurab. Kasarwani. Kasaundhan. Khandelwal. Lad. Lingayat. Maheshri. Nema. Oswal. Parwar. Srimali. Umre.

Banjara (_Pack-carrier_) 162 Barai (_Betel-vine grower and seller_) 192 Barhai (_Carpenter_) 199 Bari (_Maker of leaf-plates_) 202 Basdewa (_Cattle-dealer and religious mendicant_) 204 Basor (_Bamboo-worker_) 208 Bedar (_Soldier and public service_) 212 Beldar (_Digger and navvy_) 215 Beria (_Vagabond gipsy_) 220 Bhaina (_Forest tribe_) 225 Bhamta (_Criminal tribe and labourers_) 234 Bharbhunja (_Grain-parcher_) 238 Bharia (_Forest tribe_) 242 Bhat (_Bard and genealogist_) 251 Bhatra (_Forest tribe_) 271 Bhil (_Forest tribe_) 278 Bhilala (_Landowner and cultivator_) 293 Bhishti (_Water-man_) 298 Bhoyar (_Cultivator_) 301 Bhuiya (_Forest tribe_) 305 Bhulia (_Weaver_) 319 Bhunjia (_Forest tribe_) 322 Binjhwar (_Cultivator_) 329 Bishnoi (_Cultivator_) 337 Bohra (_Trader_) 345 Brahman (_Priest_) 351

Ahivasi. Jijhotia. Kanaujia, Kanyakubja. Khedawal. Maharashtra. Maithil. Malwi. Nagar. Naramdeo. Sanadhya. Sarwaria. Utkal.

Chadar (_Village watchman and labourer_) 400 Chamar (_Tanner and labourer_) 403 Chasa (_Cultivator_) 424 Chauhan (_Village watchman and labourer_) 427 Chhipa (_Dyer and calico-printer_) 429 Chitari (_Painter_) 432 Chitrakathi (_Picture showman_) 438 Cutchi (_Trader and shopkeeper_) 440 Dahait (_Village watchman and labourer_) 444 Daharia (_Cultivator_) 453 Dangi (_Landowner and cultivator_) 457 Dangri (_Vegetable-grower_) 463 Darzi (_Tailor_) 466 Dewar (_Beggar and musician_) 472 Dhakar (_Illegitimate, cultivator_) 477 Dhangar (_Shepherd_) 480 Dhanuk (_Bowman, labourer_) 484 Dhanwar (_Forest tribe_) 488 Dhimar (_Fisherman, water-carrier, and household servant_) 502 Dhoba (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 515 Dhobi (_Washerman_) 519 Dhuri (_Grain-parcher_) 527 Dumal (_Cultivator_) 530 Fakir (_Religious mendicant_) 537

Gadaria (_Shepherd_) 3 Gadba (_Forest tribe_) 9 Ganda (_Weaver and labourer_) 14 Gandhmali (_Uriya village priests and temple servants_) 17 Garpagari (_Averter of hailstorms_) 19 Gauria (_Snake-charmer and juggler_) 24 Ghasia (_Grass-cutter_) 27 Ghosi (_Buffalo-herdsman_) 32 Golar (_Herdsman_) 35 Gond (_Forest tribe and cultivator_) 39 Gond-Gowari (_Herdsman_) 143 Gondhali (_Religious mendicant_) 144 Gopal (_Vagrant criminal caste_) 147 Gosain (_Religious mendicant_) 150 Gowari (_Herdsman_) 160 Gujar (_Cultivator_) 166 Gurao (_Village Priest_) 175 Halba (_Forest tribe, labourer_) 182 Halwai (_Confectioner_) 201 Hatkar (_Soldier, shepherd_) 204 Hijra (_Eunuch, mendicant_) 206 Holia (_Labourer, curing hides_) 212 Injhwar (_Boatman and fisherman_) 213 Jadam (_Cultivator_) 217 Jadua (_Criminal caste_) 219 Jangam (_Priest of the Lingayat sect_) 222 Jat (_Landowner and cultivator_) 225 Jhadi Telenga (_Illegitimate, labourer_) 238 Jogi (_Religious mendicant and pedlar_) 243 Joshi (_Astrologer and village priest_) 255 Julaha (_Weaver_) 279 Kachera (_Maker of glass bangles_) 281 Kachhi (_Vegetable-grower_) 285 Kadera (_Firework-maker_) 288 Kahar (_Palanquin-bearer and household servant_) 291 Kaikari (_Basket-maker and vagrant_) 296 Kalanga (_Soldier, cultivator_) 302 Kalar (_Liquor vendor_) 306 Kamar (_Forest tribe_) 323 Kanjar (_Gipsies and prostitutes_) 331 Kapewar (_Cultivator_) 342 Karan (_Writer and clerk_) 343 Kasai (_Butcher_) 346 Kasar (_Worker in brass_) 369 Kasbi (_Prostitute_) 373 Katia (_Cotton-spinner_) 384 Kawar (_Forest tribe and cultivator_) 389 Kayasth (_Village accountant, writer and clerk_) 404 Kewat (_Boatman and fisherman_) 422 Khairwar (_Forest tribe; boilers of catechu_) 427 Khandait (_Soldier, cultivator_) 436 Khangar (_Village watchman and labourer_) 439 Kharia (_Forest tribe, labourer_) 445 Khatik (_Mutton-butcher_) 453 Khatri (_Merchant_) 456 Khojah (_Trader and shopkeeper_) 461 Khond (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 464 Kir (_Cultivator_) 481 Kirar (_Cultivator_) 485 Kohli (_Cultivator_) 493 Kol (_Forest tribe, labourer_) 500 Kolam (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 520 Kolhati (_Acrobat_) 527 Koli (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 532 Kolta (_Landowner and cultivator_) 537 Komti (_Merchant and shopkeeper_) 542 Kori (_Weaver and labourer_) 545 Korku (_Forest tribe, labourer_) 550 Korwa (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 571 Koshti (_Weaver_) 581

Kumhar (_Potter_) 3 Kunbi (_Cultivator_) 16 Kunjra (_Greengrocer_) 50 Kuramwar (_Shepherd_) 52 Kurmi (_Cultivator_) 55 Lakhera (_Worker in lac_) 104 Lodhi (_Landowner and cultivator_) 112 Lohar (_Blacksmith_) 120 Lorha (_Growers of_ san-_hemp_) 126 Mahar (_Weaver and labourer_) 129 Mahli (_Forest tribe_) 146 Majhwar (_Forest tribe_) 149 Mal (_Forest tribe_) 153 Mala (_Cotton-weaver and labourer_) 156 Mali (_Gardener and vegetable-grower_) 159 Mallah (_Boatman and fisherman_) 171 Mana (_Forest tribe, cultivator_) 172 Manbhao (_Religious mendicant_) 176 Mang (_Labourer and village musician_) 184 Mang-Garori (_Criminal caste_) 189 Manihar (_Pedlar_) 193 Mannewar (_Forest tribe_) 195 Maratha (_Soldier, cultivator and service_) 198 Mehtar (_Sweeper and scavenger_) 215 Meo (_Tribe_) 233 Mina or Deswali (_Non-Aryan tribe, cultivator_) 235 Mirasi (_Bard and genealogist_) 242 Mochi (_Shoemaker_) 244 Mowar (_Cultivator_) 250 Murha (_Digger and navvy_) 252 Nagasia (_Forest tribe_) 257 Nahal (_Forest tribe_) 259 Nai (Barber) 262 Naoda (_Boatman and fisherman_) 283 Nat (_Acrobat_) 286 Nunia (_Salt-refiner, digger and navvy_) 294 Ojha (_Augur and soothsayer_) 296 Oraon (_Forest tribe_) 299 Paik (_Soldier, cultivator_) 321 Panka (_Labourer and village watchman_) 324 Panwar Rajput (_Landowner and cultivator_) 330 Pardhan (_Minstrel and priest_) 352 Pardhi (_Hunter and fowler_) 359 Parja (_Forest tribe_) 371 Pasi (_Toddy-drawer and labourer_) 380 Patwa (_Maker of silk braid and thread_) 385 Pindari (_Freebooter_) 388 Prabhu (_Writer and clerk_) 399 Raghuvansi (_Cultivator_) 403 Rajjhar (_Agricultural labourer_) 405 Rajput (_Soldier and landowner_) 410

Baghel. Bagri. Bais. Baksaria. Banaphar. Bhadauria. Bisen. Bundela. Chandel. Chauban. Dhakar. Gaharwar. Gaur. Haihaya. Huna. Kachhwaha. Nagvansi. Nikumbh. Paik. Parihar. Rathor. Sesodia. Solankhi. Somvansi. Surajvansi. Tomara. Yadu.

Rajwar (_Forest tribe_) 470 Ramosi (_Village watchmen and labourers, formerly thieves_) 472 Rangrez (_Dyer_) 477 Rautia (_Forest tribe and cultivators, formerly soldiers_) 479 Sanaurhia (_Criminal thieving caste_) 483 Sansia (_Vagrant criminal tribe_) 488 Sansia (Uria) (_Mason and digger_) 496 Savar (_Forest tribe_) 500 Sonjhara (_Gold-washer_) 509 Sudh (_Cultivator_) 514 Sunar (_Goldsmith and silversmith_) 517 Sundi (_Liquor distiller_) 534 Tamera (_Coppersmith_) 536 Taonla (_Soldier and labourer_) 539 Teli (_Oilman_) 542 Thug (_Criminal community of murderers by strangulation_) 558 Turi (_Bamboo-worker_) 588 Velama (_Cultivator_) 593 Vidur (_Village accountant, clerk and writer_) 596 Waghya (_Religious mendicant_) 603 Yerukala (_Criminal thieving caste_) 606

Note.--The Gonds are the most important of the non-Aryan or primitive tribes, and their social customs are described in detail. The Baiga, Bhil, Kawar, Khond, Kol, Korku and Korwa are other important tribes. The two representative cultivating castes are the Kurmis and Kunbis, and the articles on them include detailed descriptions of Hindu social customs, and some information on villages, houses, dress, food and manner of life. Articles in which subjects of general interest are treated are Darzi (clothes), Sunar (ornaments), Kachera and Lakhera (bangles), Nai (hair), Kalar (veneration of alcoholic liquor), Bania (moneylending and interest), Kasai (worship and sacrifice of domestic animals), Joshi (the Hindu calendar and personal names), Bhat (suicide), Dahait (significance of the umbrella), and Kanjar (connection of Indian and European gipsies). The articles on Badhak, Sansia and Thug are compiled from Sir William Sleeman's reports on these communities of dacoits and murderers, whose suppression he achieved. For further information the Subject Index may be consulted.

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Map of India _Frontispiece_ Map of the Central Provinces Map of the Central Provinces, showing principal linguistic or racial divisions 6

1. Hindu temple of the god Siva 16 2. Hindu sculptures 26 3. Peasant's hut 40 4. Group of religious mendicants 56 5. Drawing water from the village well 72 6. Gayatri or sacred verse personified as a goddess 108 7. Image of the god Jagannath, a form of Vishnu 118 8. The god Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, with attendant deities 144 9. Hindu bathing party 158 10. Pilgrims carrying Ganges water 184 11. A meeting of the Arya Samaj for investing boys with the sacred thread 202 12. Jain temples at Muktagiri, Betul 220 13. Jain ascetics with cloth before mouth and sweeping-brush 224 14. Jain gods in attitude of contemplation 228 15. Jain temple in Seoni 230 16. Kabir 232 17. Beggar on artificial horse at the Muharram festival 248 18. Carrying the horse-shoe at the Muharram festival 252 19. Tazia or tombs of Hussain at the Muharram festival 256 20. Famous Tazia at Khandwa 260 21. Representing a tiger at the Muharram festival 272 22. Temple of Siva at Bandakpur, near Damoh 302 23. Images of Siva and his consort Devi, or Parvati, with the bull and tiger 304 24. Devotees, possessed, embracing each other, while supported on tridents, at Siva's fair at Pachmarhi 306 25. Image of the prophet Swami Narayan in the Teli temple at Burhanpur 326 26. Images of Rama, Lachman and Sita, with attendants 330 27. Image of Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth, the consort of Vishnu, with attendant 332 28. Image of the boar incarnation of Vishnu 334 29. Bahrupia impersonating the goddess Kali 344 30. Dasari religious mendicant with discus and conch-shell of Vishnu 406

31. Aghori mendicant 14 32. Ahirs decorated with cowries for the Stick Dance at Diwali 18 33. Image of Krishna as Murlidhar or the flute-player, with attendant deities 28 34. Ahir dancers in Diwali costume 32 35. Pinjara cleaning cotton 72 36. Baiga village, Balaghat District 88 37. Hindu mendicants with sect-marks 94 38. Anchorite sitting on iron nails 98 39. Pilgrims carrying water of the river Nerbudda 100 40. _Coloured Plate_: Examples of Tilaks or sect-marks worn on the forehead 102 41. Group of Marwari Bania women 112 42. Image of the god Ganpati carried in procession 116 43. The elephant-headed god Ganpati. His conveyance is a rat, which can be seen as a little blob between his feet 120 44. Mud images made and worshipped at the Holi festival 126 45. Bania's shop 128 46. Banjara women with the _singh_ or horn 184 47. Group of Banjara women 188 48. Basors making baskets of bamboo 210 49. Bhat with his _putla_ or doll 256 50. Group of Bhils 278 51. Tantia Bhil, a famous dacoit 282 52. Group of Bohras at Burhanpur (Nimar) 346 53. Brahman worshipping his household gods 380 54. Brahman bathing party 384 55. Brahman Pujaris or priests 390 56. Group of Maratha Brahman men 392 57. Group of Naramdeo Brahman women 396 58. Group of Naramdeo Brahman men 398 59. Chamars tanning and working in leather 416 60. Chamars cutting leather and making shoes 418 61. Chhipa or calico-printer at work 430 62. Dhimar or fisherman's hut 502 63. Fishermen in dug-outs or hollowed tree trunks 506 64. Group of Gurujwale Fakirs 538

65. Gond women grinding corn 42 66. Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Ramnagar 46 67. Gonds on a journey 62 68. Killing of Rawan, the demon king of Ceylon, from whom the Gonds are supposed to be descended 114 69. Woman about to be swung round the post called Meghnath 116 70. Climbing the pole for a bag of sugar 118 71. Gonds with their bamboo carts at market 122 72. Gond women, showing tattooing on backs of legs 126 73. Maria Gonds in dancing costume 136 74. Gondhali musicians and dancers 144 75. Gosain mendicant 150 76. Alakhwale Gosains with faces covered with ashes 152 77. Gosain mendicants with long hair 154 78. Famous Gosain Mahant. Photograph taken after death 156 79. Gujar village proprietress and her land agent 168 80. Guraos with figures made at the Holi festival called Gangour 176 81. Group of Gurao musicians with their instruments 180 82. Ploughing with cows and buffaloes in Chhattisgarh 182 83. Halwai or confectioner's shop 202 84. Jogi mendicants of the Kanphata sect 244 85. Jogi musicians with _sarangi_ or fiddle 250 86. Kaikaris making baskets 298 87. Kanjars making ropes 332 88. A group of Kasars or brass-workers 370 89. Dancing girls and musicians 374 90. Girl in full dress and ornaments 378 91. Old type of sugarcane mill 494 92. Group of Kol women 512 93. Group of Kolams 520 94. Korkus of the Melghat hills 550 95. Korku women in full dress 556 96. Koshti men dancing a figure, holding strings and beating sticks 582

97. Potter at his wheel 4 98. Group of Kunbis 16 99. Figures of animals made for Pola festival 40 100. Hindu boys on stilts 42 101. Throwing stilts into the water at the Pola festival 46 102. Carrying out the dead 48 103. Pounding rice 60 104. Sowing 84 105. Threshing 86 106. Winnowing 88 107. Women grinding wheat and husking rice 90 108. Group of women in Hindustani dress 92 109. _Coloured Plate_: Examples of spangles worn by women on the forehead 106 110. Weaving: sizing the warp 142 111. Winding thread 144 112. Bride and bridegroom with marriage crowns 166 113. Bullocks drawing water with _mot_ 170 114. Mang musicians with drums 186 115. Statue of Maratha leader, Bimbaji Bhonsla, in armour 200 116. Image of the god Vishnu as Vithoba 248 117. Coolie women with babies slung at the side 256 118. Hindu men showing the _choti_ or scalp-lock 272 119. Snake-charmer with cobras 292 120. Transplanting rice 340 121. Group of Pardhans 350 122. Little girls playing 400 123. Gujarati girls doing figures with strings and sticks 402 124. Ornaments 524 125. Teli's oil-press 544 126. The Goddess Kali 574 127. Waghya mendicants 604

_a_ has the sound of _u_ in _but_ or _murmur_. _a_ has the sound of _a_ in _bath_ or _tar_. _e_ has the sound of _é_ in _écarté_ or _ai_ in _maid_. _i_ has the sound of _i_ in _bit_, or (as a final letter) of _y_ in _sulky_ _i_ has the sound of _ee_ in _beet_. _o_ has the sound of _o_ in _bore_ or _bowl_. _u_ has the sound of _u_ in _put_ or _bull_. _u_ has the sound of _oo_ in _poor_ or _boot_.